Wednesday 27 January 2010

Literary Depictions of Chinese and Japanese Migration to Latin America

Literary Depictions of Chinese and Japanese Migration to Latin America
(David Brookshaw, University of Bristol, England)*

The absence in Latin American literature of writers of East Asian origin cannot fail to be noticed, especially if one compares this situation with that in the United States and Canada, where there is a strong presence of Asian American writers, reflected in the existence of reviews and even university courses on the subject. It is surprising, that there is no Peruvian or Cuban Amy Tan, no Brazilian Kazuo Ishiguro. Indeed, in the last quarter of the twentieth century, only one novel appeared in Brazil focusing specifically on the Japanese immigrant experience, Ana Suzuki’s O Jardim Japonês (1986) – Suzuki herself being a Brazilian of European origin married to a Japanese Brazilian. This was followed at some distance by Ryoki Inoue's multi-generational novel about a Japanese migrant family, entitled Saga (2006), possibly timed to coincide with the centenary of Japanese immigration to Brazil.

It could be argued that, in the case of Brazil, Japanese immigration is a relatively recent phenomenon, dating as it does from the beginning of the twentieth century, with further influxes after 1945. The absence of a corpus of ‘Japanese-Brazilian’ literature might thus be explained. On the other hand, migration of Lebanese to Brazil, dates from roughly the same period, and here, one notes a number of names to have made an impact in Brazilian literature, such as Raduan Nassar, Salim Miguel, Milton Hatoum and Betty Milan, to name only a few. The same is the case with Central and East European Jews and Italians, who have provided some major exponents of Brazilian fiction, such as Moacyr Scliar, Samuel Rawet, and José Clemente Pozenato.

Can we therefore argue that the absence of Japanese-Brazilian writers lies in the nature of Japanese migration to Brazil? We know, for example, that the major influx of Japanese was to the rural areas of the state of S. Paulo, with smaller concentrations in Paraná and in isolated areas of the north, notably in the state of Pará. We know too that much migration was family-based. Isolated communities of farmers no doubt delayed the process of assimilation and urbanisation, and this compounded especially by profound linguistic and cultural differences, could well explain the tardy emergence of Japanese-Brazilians into the type of urban occupations that might have encouraged the evolution of a community-based literature in Portuguese.

I would, however, suggest that there are also profound cultural reasons related to an emergent Brazilian cultural nationalism, especially from the 1930s onwards, that have in all likelihood inhibited alternative, or minority Brazilian literary voices, and what one can say for Brazil, can also no doubt apply to other Latin American countries. Brazil, like its continental neighbours, has developed a culturally nationalistic discourse that emphasises ‘mesticismo’, the harmonious blending of Latin European (Catholic) culture, with African and/or indigenous cultural residues. This, along with a parallel discourse surrounding a supposedly Latin American absence of racism, has often been contrasted with the more rigidly defined contours of ethnic identity as propounded in the United States, and by extension, the tradition of racial segregation and exclusion in that country. Latin America is about fusion and harmony, North America is about inter-ethnic hostility and separation. Cultural hybridization and racial fusion have traditionally gone hand in hand in Latin America, whether given expression in José Vasconcelos’s ‘raza cósmica’ in Mexico, Gilberto Freyre’s ‘luso-tropicalismo’ in Brazil, or Fernando Ortiz’s Afro-Cubanism. I do not propose to discuss the implications of such cultural self-perceptions in terms of a socially hierarchical pigmentocracy, in which European cultural and somatic values have traditionally held sway over a ‘darker’ alternative, nor to discuss the Peruvian writer, José María Arguedas’s notion, that there are multiple variants of ‘mesticismo’ or ‘mestizaje’, which make it difficult to talk of one homogenised mestizo culture. Suffice to say at this point that Latin American establishment cultural nationalism did not encourage difference, or to put it another way, did not encourage what has now become common currency in North America, namely, values associated with multi- or pluri-culturalism. To this extent, Japanese Brazilianism – or for that matter Chinese Cubanism – were difficult and potentially subversive concepts to articulate. None of this made it any easier for Japanese Brazilians to identify themselves as Brazilians or Chinese Cubans to rejoice in their Chinese Cubanness.

It is therefore significant that the two writers who have given voice to the Japanese-Brazilian experience and to that of Chinese-Cubans do not emanate from those communities. Indeed, they are, to all intents and purposes, North American writers, albeit of an ethnic diaspora. Karen Tei Yamashita is a Japanese-American from California. A period of nine years’ residence in Brazil and marriage to a Brazilian, has given her an insight into the culture of that country as well as a knowledge of the language that has enabled her to write three works of fiction about the Japanese-Brazilian experience: the family saga and epic of migration to Brazil, Brazil-Maru (1992), preceded by another novel set in Brazil, Through the Arc of the Rain Forest (1990), in which there is a Japanese protagonist, and finally, Circle K Cycles (2001), which is a type of narrative documentary on the Nikkei diaspora in Japan, that is the community of Brazilian returnees of Japanese descent. Cristina García, for her part, was born in Havana, but taken to the United States as an infant in the wake of the revolution of 1959. Like Yamashita, she is essentially an anglophone writer, albeit of bi-lingual background. She has written a number of novels about the Cuban experience in the United States, most notably, Dreaming in Cuban (1992), but is also the author of an epic novel about Chinese migration to Cuba, Monkey Hunting (2003). Both Yamashita and García undertook a considerable amount of research in order to write their novels.

The difference between García’s depiction of Chinese migration to Cuba from the 1850s, and Yamashita’s saga of Japanese migration to Brazil during the first decades of the twentieth century, lies in the profound social and economic differences and manner in which these migrants arrived in their host countries. Chen Pan, the male figure who dominates García’s novel fled Amoy (present-day Xiamen) in 1857, lured by the promise of riches in distant Cuba, only to find himself an indentured servant once he arrived, trapped on a sugar plantation alongside Africans who were still enslaved. Inevitably, Chinese migration to Cuba at this time was almost exclusively male, and this is captured by García not only in her depiction of the inhumanity of the journey, but also of the plantation. In due course, Chen Pan escapes his enslavement, and lives the life of a cimarrón, or runaway slave, before seeking refuge in Havana. It is here that he has the opportunity to free a female mulatto slave, with whom he soon cohabits and constitutes a family. While Chen Pan never loses his sense of being Chinese, his memories of the homeland gradually grow fainter, and he also takes on some of the beliefs that his female companion, Lucrecia, passes on to him, while she herself, is influenced by some of his Chinese customs and habits. While the family inhabit Havana’s Chinatown (one of the largest in Latin America up until the 1950s), Chen Pan is, in a sense, absorbed into the creole world of Cuba, and his occupation, trading in curios and antiques, purchased from the planters whose fortunes have changed as a result of Abolition, and sold to American and British tourists, underlines his function as a social and cultural intermediary.

Yamashita’s saga begins with the arrival of an immigrant ship at the Brazilian port of Santos in 1925. The passengers are made up of family groups, even if some of them have been artificially constituted, and they are bound for the interior of the state of São Paulo, where they will establish the agricultural colony, aptly named ‘Esperança’, a type of traditional Japanese commune, where contact with the local Brazilian population really only takes place sporadically, when migrants visit the local town. In the course of time, a younger and charismatic leader, Kantaro Uno, emerges, and it is his inflated and misguided ambition that govern the fate of the commune. When it becomes apparent that Kantaro has been using loans designed to embark on a chicken breeding project on the commune, to fund a mistress in São Paulo, the community is split down the middle, one half of it refusing to follow Kantaro in order to found a new commune elsewhere, preferring to remain on a plot of land offered them by a friendly Brazilian landowner, known throughout as the ‘Bahiano’. But the migrant communities in the rural interior are where the Japanese way of life and customs are preserved, to the extent that later, they become the focus of curiosity for media companies in Japan, where such customs no longer exist. At the same time, those migrants who settled in the city, or who escaped the constraints of the commune to go and live in São Paulo, are, like Chen Pan in Cuba, more prone to become ‘Brazilianised’ and by extension, to marry outside the community, and this process is symbolised at the end of the book by the marriage of the Japanese, Guilherme, and the Bahiano’s daughter, Jacira, both of whom had been students and political activists during the military dictatorship, and had been exiled to Europe.

What both Yamashita and García also do is to demonstrate in their narratives that migrants belong to networks that maintain links with their former homelands. Once again, nationalist discourse in host countries tends to ignore or forget this fact, preferring to focus on the integration of immigrants, as if they had no past which was independent of the host, and above all no desire to return to their homeland, much less move on anywhere else. It is true that Kantaro’s experiment in rural Brazil is a type of attempt to recreate Japan in the Brazilian wilderness, and despite the failures, the dream persists until his eventual demise. For Chen Pan, return is never really contemplated, but his son, Lorenzo, a practitioner of herbal medicine, does go back to live in China, time enough for him to marry there and have a child, who remains in China, witnesses life in Shanghai in the 1920s, its occupation by the Japanese and then fall to the communists and the excesses of the cultural revolution, long after her father has returned to Cuba. More sadly ironic is the return to the East of Lorenzo’s grandson, Domingo Chen, who, taken to New York as an infant by his father following the Cuban revolution, joins the American army in Vietnam, where he has an affair with a Vietnamese bar girl by whom he has a child, but who will inevitably be abandoned, like so many women were when the soldiers went home. García’s fragmented narrative, which mingles different chronological times and geographical scenarios, seems to reflect the fractured cultural identities of her characters, and their sense of loss in a world where they never quite feel they belong, or at least where their sense of belonging is not clear cut.

Something similar could be said of Yamashita’s returning Nikkei (Brazilian-Japanese). The re-migration of Japanese back to their ancestral homeland had already been hinted at in the final chapter of Brazil-Maru, but forms the subject matter of Circle K Cycles, which blends documentary report, oral stories and testimonies, snatches of conversation, as well as photographic illustrations, and is written in English, Portuguese and Japanese. It evokes the lives of Brazilian immigrants in Japan, of which there were some two hundred thousand residing in the country in the mid-1990s. Repeated failures of the Brazilian economy during the 1980s and early 90s led to a brain drain, which of course to some extent has continued to this day, with growing Brazilian diasporas in North America and Western Europe. But it is probably true to say that Japan was the first country to accept Brazilians of Japanese descent to work in its factories, car plants, building sites and service industries, on the grounds of what it saw as social and cultural harmony, and in apparent preference to Koreans, Filipinos etc. What few people had imagined, and this forms one of the central planks of Yamashita’s book, is the isolation, exploitation and prejudice to which these Brazilian-Japanese were subjected upon their ‘return’ to their ancestral country. One of the problems faced by their hosts was that although these Brazilians looked Japanese, they behaved like Brazilians, and once animosity and prejudice began to hem them in, the more they fell back on their sense of being Brazilian. Restaurants and shops selling Brazilian food and products, clubs and associations, even a re-invented carnival, were the by-products of these migrants’ attempts to create a home space in what was, after all, an alien environment.

In conclusion, both García and Yamashita belong to a postmodern generation of writers, who approach the question of national and personal identity in a different way from that of the modernist, nation-building writers who preceded them in Brazil, Cuba and other Latin American countries. Gone is the top-down ‘mesticismo’ of establishment nationalism, to be replaced by a more ambiguous view of cultural hybridity, in which national boundaries become porous. Yamashita’s returning Nikkei migrants, she implies, may well in due course escape the constraints of ‘national identity’, encountering a type of home in homelessness, becoming part of a global workforce:

“Half the kids born in Oizumi these days are Brazilian. What is the world coming to? We’re procreating like rabbits! That is, we’re procreating like Nikkei. Maybe the next generation can answer or reject these questions, unless they grow up illiterate. They could grow up Japanese, get domesticated and all, but the documents will prove they’re not. Being born in Japan doesn’t necessarily have any meaning other than the labor of it. Some Nikkei are biding their time, one or two more years and they can get a Japanese passport. That might be a ticket to somewhere: Canada, Australia, America. Or just going home, wherever that is. Japan might not be the final resting place” (Yamashita, 2001: 147).

And yet for García, globalisation and international migrations have their cost. One of the reasons for Domingo to abandon his Vietnamese lover is the recollection of seeing the alienated Asian wives of former soldiers adapting to life in small-town America, while seeking to deny their backgrounds by dyeing their hair blond and taking on American names. There is a nobility in migration, but also a sad loss, and an often tragic price to pay:

“Domingo wondered about these migrations, these cross-cultural lusts. Were people meant to travel such distances? Mix with others so different from themselves? His great-grandfather had left China more than a hundred years ago, penniless and alone. Then he’d fallen in love with a slave girl and created a whole new race – brown children with Chinese eyes who spoke Spanish and a smattering of Abakuá. His first family never saw him again” (García, 2003: 209).



WORKS CITED

García, Cristina, Monkey Hunting. New York, Random House, 2004.
Yamashita, Karen Tei, Brazil-Maru. Minneapolis, Coffee House Press, 1992.
Yamashita, Karen Tei, Circle K Cycles, Minneapolis, Coffee House Press, 2001.

*Text of a conference paper read at the FIEALC conference, Macau, September 2007.

Monday 18 January 2010

A escrita em Macau: uma literatura de circunstâncias ou as circunstâncias de uma literatura

A escrita em Macau: uma literatura de circunstâncias ou as circunstâncias de uma literatura


David Brookshaw, Universidade de Bristol, Reino Unido.







Este ensaio, além de fornecer um olhar sobre a escrita em Macau em termos da sua periodização, pretende analisar os vínculos, mais ou menos estreitos, que existem entre o momento político e histórico e a produção literária, justificando assim o título, nomeadamente que a escrita decorre de certas circunstâncias sem as quais não haveria literatura. Isto é, a produção literária necessita de uma conjuntura de elementos: meios de comunicação (jornais, revistas), o que implica um público leitor e uma incipiente crítica literária, e em situações coloniais ou pós-coloniais, um projecto político-cultural que põe a literatura ao serviço da expressão de uma identidade regional ou nacional – mesmo que esse projecto venha a ser ultrapassado e/ou rechaçado, ou até parodiado pela própria expressão literária1. Basta pensarmos nas literaturas africanas em língua portuguesa das últimas cinco décadas, ou na literatura brasileira em determinadas épocas dos Século XIX e XX.
Antes de tentar qualquer definição da escrita em Macau, convém considerarmos o que queremos dizer pelo termo ‘literatura’ além das categorias tradicionais de ficção, poesia e teatro. No contexto específico de Macau, por exemplo, existe, de longa data, uma imprensa em língua portuguesa (e evidentemente em chinês), e portanto uma tradição jornalística que não pode ser ignorada em qualquer estudo da escrita em Macau. O jornalismo em Macau remonta ao início do Século XIX, com a publicação dos primeiros jornais e periódicos em português na sequência da revolução liberal de 1822. Os jornais defendiam diversas posições políticas, o que deu origem a uma tradição ensaística que continua até os nossos dias. Muitos dos jornalistas portugueses que se radicaram em Macau ao longo dos anos eram também professores e estudiosos da cultura local, sendo personalidades como Manuel da Silva Mendes e José Silveira Machado as figuras mais emblemáticas dessa tendência no Século XX. Em segundo lugar, a situação de Macau como ponto de chegada para muitos portugueses em funções oficiais ao longo dos anos, e como ponto de partida para gerações de macaenses que deixaram a sua terra natal à procura de melhores oportunidades, produziu por um lado uma literatura de reportagem e de viagens, e por outro relatos autobiográficos, estes últimos de particular importância para uma apreciação da sensibilidade dos macaenses em relação ao seu passado, e à evocação da sua terra natal através da memória. Nesta categoria, podemos incluir os livros publicados nos Estados Unidos, de Felipe B. Nery, Filho de Macau (a Son of Macao): an Autobiography (1988) e, muito especialmente, The Wind amongst the Ruins: a Childhood in Macao (1993), de Edith Jorge de Martini, ambos autores que parecem ter abandonado o português, pelo menos como meio de expressão escrita, assim como os poemas de Rita Lopes, residente na Califórnia, esses sim em português e publicados na imprensa de Macau e na internet3.
Se aceitarmos, portanto, que a literatura de Macau pode incluir toda a gama da escrita, temos também de considerar, antes de tentar qualquer periodização da produção literária, a questão fundamental da língua e da origem dos autores, problemática aliás discutida por Cheng Wai Ming e por Ana Paula Laborinho entre outros. Em primeiro lugar, para determinar o que constitui a identidade macaense, devemos estar consciente de que a esmagadora maioria da população neste antigo território português tem o chinês como primeira e muitas vezes única língua. Aqui, convém notar que a população de Macau em 1999, consistia em 98% de etnia chinesa, a grande maioria desta porcentagem oriúnda de outras partes da China – isto é não nascida em Macau - sendo o resto composto de portugueses e macaenses, talvez uns doze mil numa população que rodeava os 440 mil. Por isso, existe, como é óbvio, uma tradição de escrita sobre Macau nessa língua, que abrange escritores como Tang Xian Zu (1550-1616), Wei Yuan (1794-1857), e Zheng Guan Ying (1842-1922) que visitaram ou residiram na cidade ao longo dos séculos e que lá situaram parte da sua obra. Muitos desses visitantes, dada a situação política ambígua de Macau, se encontravam em missões oficiais imperiais, tal como os seus congêneres portugueses. Na realidade, durante grande parte da sua história, tratava-se de um território na periferia de duas potências imperiais, em que a soberania de cada uma se exercia com subtilezas diplomáticas, para esquivar, tanto quanto possível, confrontos abertos.
Mais recentemente, muitos fizeram a sua aprendizagem como escritores na imprensa em língua chinesa que surgiu em paralelo à portuguesa. Desconhecidos pelo público leitor português, só nos últimos anos da administração portuguesa é que houve uma tentativa de tornar alguns escritores contemporâneos chineses acessíveis através de traduções: Sete Estrelas (Antologia de Prosas Femininas (1998) e Olhando as Colinas (2000), este último reunindo artigos e crónicas do autor Lou Mau. Por fim, a Antologia de Poetas de Macau (1999), organizada por Jorge Arrimar e Yao Jing Ming, contém exemplos de poemas de escritores chineses ligados a Macau ao longo do Século XX, com um número crescente de autores nascidos ou radicados na cidade nas décadas mais recentes. Uma obra que é importante mencionar aqui é a novela, Aoge de huànjue shijie, publicada em 1999 e traduzida para o francês como Las Hallucinations d’Ao Ge, da autora Liao Zixin, residente em Macau embora nascida na Cambodja4. Esta novela é única na produção literária em Macau, já que se trata da visão de uma chinesa sobre a situação do macaense perante a sua dupla herança, nas vésperas da transferência de Macau para a China.
A interpretação mais liberal (ou plural) do que constitui a escrita de Macau seria aceitarmos todas as obras em quaisquer línguas que tivessem como pano de fundo Macau: essa categoria poderia abranger entre muitos outros o romancista australiano Brian Castro, natural de Hong Kong, filho de um português de Xangai (e portanto vinculado também a Macau), e cuja obra enfoca em parte a sua herança luso-asiática, especialmente o seu romance (auto)biográfico, Shanghai Dancing (2003), mas também visível em Pomeroy (1991), e articulada nos ensaios publicados com o título Looking for Estrellita (1999); Timothy Mo, escritor também anglófono nascido em Hong Kong de pai chinês e mãe britânica, com vários romances situados em Macau ou em que há personagens macaenses5. Poderíamos também incluir o inglês, Austin Coates, durante muitos anos residente em Hong Kong, que tinha um interesse profundo pela história de Macau. Este interesse deu à luz várias obras, entre as quais o romance histórico, City of Broken Promises (1967), um modelo para outros romances publicados por autores portugueses de Macau na década de 906.
A contrapartida desta posição de “porta aberta a todos” seria aceitarmos apenas aqueles autores nascidos e criados em Macau como verdadeiros expoentes da literatura de Macau. Neste caso, a lista seria bem mais curta, e se limitássemos a definição àqueles textos escritos em patuá, então a lista seria ainda mais restrita. Em qualquer debate sobre a literatura que se faz em/sobre Macau, deveríamos ficar sensíveis à origem dos autores e à questão linguística, e dada a natureza híbrida da cultura macaense e o carácter cosmopolita da sociedade que evoluiu em Macau ao longo dos séculos, a melhor solução talvez seja deixar a possibilidade de uma certa triagem, observando assim o espírito das palavras do macaense da diáspora, Frederic A. Silva, que afirmou que ser macaense é sobretudo um estado mental (Pittis & Henders: 222). Daí também a necessidade de falarmos na escrita em Macau, mais do que na literatura macaense.
Uma das considerações que convém fazer é perguntar se é possível distinguir uma escrita emergente em Macau, em concerto com as literaturas que emergiram nos outros territórios ‘ultramarinos’ portugueses a partir da década de 40 (ou de 30 se incluirmos Cabo Verde). Nas colónias africanas, havia, e pelas mesmas razões que em Macau, uma tradição jornalística, e em Angola pelo menos, essa tradição tinha incentivado as primeiras manifestações literárias em finais do Século XIX. Seria necessário pesquisar em bibliotecas públicas e particulares em Macau para saber se havia também uma ligação entre o jornalismo e a produção literária, como aliás havia em Goa. Por outro lado, uma vez que o colonialismo na sua última fase começou a estabelecer-se, a literatura que se passou a produzir em/sobre Angola e Moçambique, passou a ser de teor exoticista, e tinha por fim mais ou menos explícito justificar a missão colonizadora. Foi este o caso tambem em relação a Macau, se bem que mais limitado, como evidenciado nos romances de Jaime do Inso (Caminho do Oriente) e de Emílio San Bruno (O Caso da Rua Volong). Mas nos anos a seguir ao fim da Guerra do Pacífico (1941-45), à medida que a vida civil em Macau se foi normalizando, o jornalismo começou a florescer novamente, e não é por acaso que a primeira escritora macaense a manifestar o que poderíamos chamar uma consciência regional, fosse jornalista. Os contos de Deolinda da Conceição, publicados em 1956 com o titulo de Cheongsam – A Cabaia, refletem o potencial literário de uma geração de macaenses que também incluía Luís Gonzaga Gomes, cuja obra se dedicava a explicar e analisar as tradições culturais chinesas de Macau, José dos Santos Ferreira, expoente de uma literatura popular em patuá, ou Língua Maquista, e o futuro romancista, Henrique de Senna Fernandes. Fernandes começou a escrever contos quando estudante em Coimbra, e de facto, um dos seus contos mais conhecidos, ‘A-Tchan, a tancareira’, ganhou um prémio literário no meio estudantil daquela cidade. Influenciado de certa forma pelo realismo social da época, e talvez em resposta às incipientes manifestações literárias dos seus colegas africanos - ao fim e ao cabo, Agostinho Neto era estudante em Coimbra na mesma altura, e a Casa dos Estudantes do Império em Lisboa organizava eventos em que se debatia sobre questões culturais - é razoável concluir que Fernandes quisesse expressar a realidade social e regional da sua longínqua terra, tal e qual como faziam os luso-africanos e até açorianos da época7. Há também evidência de uma actividade cultural em Macau na década de 50, através da revista Mosaico, incentivada pelo Círculo Cultural de Macau, cujos membros eram pessoas ligadas à administração, em Macau a serviço, ou às forças armadas ou a outras profissões, além de intelectuais macaenses como Gonzaga Gomes. Não sabemos exactamente por que é que esta actividade terminou, mas seria legítimo concluir que a crise de 1961 tenha tido profundas repercussões em Macau: o início da guerra colonial em Angola e, talvez mais importante na óptica dos macaenses, a invasão de Goa, Damão e Diu precisamente numa altura de incerteza sobre o futuro imediato de Macau. Tudo leva a crer que os eventos em África e na ĺndia, sem falar na hostilidade latente de uma China em plena revolução Maoista, tiveram o seu efeito no território, e especialmente sobre os macaenses, cujo sentimento de identidade dependia, paradoxalmente, do vínculo com Portugal. Talvez seja por isso que a expressão de um regionalismo macaense tenha caído num relativo silêncio até a década de 80, e muito especialmente de 90. No entanto, a década de 60 viu chegar a Macau uma escritora cuja carreira literária ficaria intimamente ligada ao território. A China Fica ao Lado, colecção de contos de Maria Ondina Braga, e inspirada pela estadia desta autora na cidade entre 1961 e 1965, foi publicada pela primeira vez em 1968.
Esquecemos muitas vezes que as guerras coloniais em Angola, Moçambique e Guiné eram também guerras entre literaturas. Havia uma literatura dos guerrilheiros muitas vezes tão limitada em termos de qualidade literária como a literatura que apoiava o regime colonial. No entanto, entre esses dois extremos, havia escritores e uma actividade editorial dedicados a contribuir para a dinamização da vida cultural das colónias africanas. Depois de 1975, alguns dos luso-angolanos e luso-moçambicanos que participaram nesses movimentos, apanhados no meio das guerras já pós-coloniais, se estabeleceram em Macau, onde iriam contribuir para o surto literário em português da década de 808. Deixaram para trás países já politicamente independentes, onde a literatura desempenhava um papel considerado fundamental na formação da nação, e onde pouco a pouco os escritores começaram a cultivar o lado estético além do meramente político da produção literária. Na segunda metade da década de 70 havia um crescente interesse em Portugal nas literaturas africanas de expressão portuguesa graças, em grande parte, ao impulso dado por críticos e académicos como Manuel Ferreira e Salvato Trigo entre outros. Por isso, não nos deve surpreender o facto de o macaense, Henrique de Senna Fernandes, ter lançado precisamente em 1978, a sua primeira colecção de contos, Nam Van – Contos de Macau, que incluía o já referido ‘A-Tchan, a tancareira’. A publicação de Nam Van nessa altura reflete claramente a necessidade que o autor sentia que Macau fosse representada na emergente literatura lusófona pós-colonial.
Nos anos 80, com a aproximação do acordo luso-chinês de 1987, a corrida para uma literatura de Macau em português parecia intensificar-se, e a publicação do primeiro romance de Senna Fernandes, Amor e Dedinhos-de-Pé (1986), tendo como tema um drama macaense, com personagens macaenses num mundo dominado por macaenses e numa determinada época histórica da cidade, era sintomática dessa intensificação da produção literária, assim como o seu segundo romance, A Trança Feiticeira (1992), que focaliza muito mais explicitamente a necessidade de preservar a identidade de Macau, reconciliando os macaenses também com a sua herança chinesa, e preparando-os para a inevitável troca de bandeira.
No entanto, Fernandes não estava só. Nesta altura, havia um elevado número de portugueses a residir no território: jornalistas, professores, trabalhadores nos meios de comunicação, funcionários públicos, vindos de Portugal. Havia outros que visitavam Macau por períodos mais limitados. Muitos escreveram poemas ou ficção que tinham por tema ou pano de fundo Macau e a China. Este orientalismo de última hora foi facilitado pela emergência de instituições estatais e fundações privadas que subsidiavam a publicação de livros, sem esquecer a importância de editoras como Livros do Oriente, fundada por Beltrão Coelho e a jornalista macaense, Cecília Jorge. Até certo ponto, estas instituições fizeram para Macau o que as uniões e associações de escritores fizeram nos países africanos de língua portuguesa nas décadas de 70 e 80. Foram muitos os portugueses em Macau que publicaram livros, demasiados para fazermos uma apreciação de cada um aqui, mas vale mencionar apenas os seguintes: Rodrigo Leal de Carvalho, residente em Macau durante quatro décadas, e com uma carreira passada quase inteiramente nas colónias, e que acabaria por ser o romancista mais prolífico do período, com uma série de romances que enfocavam muito particularmente as várias diásporas do território. E na poesia, Jorge Arrimar e Fernanda Dias, cujas experiências de Macau manifestam algumas semelhanças, sendo ambos conscientes da sua condição de ‘exilados’, Arrimar como luso-angolano, cuja infância foi passada na zona rural do sul de Angola, e Dias, em cujos poemas, há muitas vezes o eco de um longínquo sul de Portugal, longínquo tanto no tempo como no espaço. É interessante também notar que estes três escritores originavam nas periferias do então mundo português, Carvalho dos Açores, Arrimar do Huila, e Dias do Alentejo, descobrindo a sua vocação criativa numa outra periferia, fazendo dela o centro do seu mundo imaginado.
Enquanto o longo período de residência em Macau parece tê-los transformado em escritores publicados, outros que passaram pelo território chegaram como escritores já consagrados em Portugal, autores como Rebordão Navarro, Agustina Bessa Luís, e João Aguiar, que produziram obras inspiradas pela história ou pela realidade social e cultural da cidade. Tudo isto, como já foi mencionado, decorreu das circunstâncias históricas pelas quais Macau passava, mas era como se se procurasse deixar um legado literário em língua portuguesa, que de alguma forma ou outra, reforçasse a posição da língua. Se os autores estivessem conscientes disso ou não, não há dúvida de que este ambiente, pela primeira vez desde os anos 50, encorajou a re-emergência de uma vida jornalística, literária e cultural.
Depois do ‘handover’, esta actividade literária em português acabou quase completamente, apesar de algumas tentativas de resuscitá-la. No fundo, com a partida da administração portuguesa, as circunstâncias deixaram de existir para que uma literatura em português circulasse. A característica de Macau é que não há uma cultura linguística com a qual todos podem identificar a não ser, como é natural, o chinês, mas mesmo aqui há uma complicação, já que a língua utilizada pela grande maioria da população é o cantonense, e não a língua oficial da Republica Popular da China, o que não significa que não haja enormes pressões para aprender e utilizar o mandarim. Por outro lado, há um elevado número de pessoas em Macau que estudam o inglês, e este factor tem o seu efeito na produção literária, se tomarmos como exemplo os cursos no deparatmento de inglês da Universidade de Macau em ‘Creative Writing’, dirigidos pelo poeta australiano, Christopher (Kit) Kellen. Aqui, talvez haja o elemento embriónico de uma vida literária centrada neste programa e na Associação de Estórias em Macau, o seu braço editorial, que já lançou vários volumes de contos e poemas da autoria do coordinador do curso e dos seus alunos. Em 2008, Kelen coordenou a publicação de uma antologia de poesia de Macau em chinês, português e inglês (mas com a versão original em paralelo). Trata-se, é claro, de uma iniciativa louvável, e podíamos argumentar que é melhor do que nada uma literatura lida através do intermédio do inglês para tentar contestar o materialismo desenfreado provocado pela ‘cultura’ do jogo, e pela transformação da cidade numa Las Vegas oriental. Mas o que parece estar a acontecer em Macau, é que a hibridez luso-cantonense, evocado na ficção de Henrique de Senna Fernandes e outros, está a sofrer um aperto entre duas forças incontornáveis – por um lado o mandarim, a língua de coesão nacional e cada vez mais internacional, por outro o inglês, a língua da chamada ‘globalização’.
Quanto à literatura em língua portuguesa, dois diários e dois semanários em português garantem a continuação de uma tradição ensaística que remonta ao início do Século XIX. E não é por acaso que, para marcar os cinco anos do handover, um desses semanários, Ponto Final, tenha lançado um incentivo para a publicação de várias obras de ficção tendo como pano de fundo Macau, recorrendo à tradição do folhetim. A iniciativa pretendia produzir cinco obras de ficção. Até agora, só três títulos foram publicados em forma de livro9. Tão importante para a identidade própria de Macau é a sobrevivência do pátua como expressão cultural. E parece que aqui, apesar de não ser utilizado no dia a dia, a actividade do grupo Doci Papiaçam, liderado por Miguel de Senna Fernandes, conseguiu não só actualizar o teatro em termos de temas, mas encorajou a participação de chineses, o que comprova que se há um fosso linguístico em Macau, este pode ser vencido pelo humor e pela sátira.
* * *
Este ensaio tratou de mostrar como a escrita em Macau tem sido um produto de circunstâncias extra-literárias. Tal como em outras áreas pós-coloniais, não podemos divorciar a literatura da sua função social, ou seja, o desejo de criar literatura provém muitas vezes de um ambiente propício ao debate cultural em torno da defesa de um património aparentemente ameaçado, ou de uma injustiça social e política. Em Macau, este debate surgiu nos anos 50, e novamente na década de 90. A expressão de uma realidade regional única mudou de teor desde a passagem da administração do território para a China e a saída de muitos portugueses. Isto não significa que não possa surgir um autor macaense de envergadura em língua portuguesa, mas as leis do mercado determinarão que qualquer obra seja publicada em Portugal e/ou no Brasil e aceite pelo público leitor nesses países. Na realidade, Macau é um espaço multilingue, sendo que a sua própria especifidade e identidade dentro da China sejam baseadas num certo cosmopolitismo em que o chinês, o inglês e talvez o português tenham um papel a desempenhar neste início de milénio, traduzindo a realidade do mundo de Macau para leitores em diversos espaços linguísticos.



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Braga, Maria Ondina. 1968. A China Fica ao Lado. Lisboa, Bertrand.
Bruno, Emílio de San. 1928. O Caso da Rua Volong (Scenas da Vida Colonial). Lisboa: Tipografia do Comercio.
Castro, Brian. 1991. Pomeroy. Sydney/London: Allen & Unwin.
Castro, Brian. 1999. Looking for Estrellita. St Lucia: Queensland University Press.
Castro, Brian. 2003. Shanghai Dancing. Sydney, Giramondo Publishing.
Cheng Wai Ming. S/d. Literatura chinesa de Macau entre os anos oitenta e os princípios da década de noventa. Macau: Administração, 29, vol. VIII, 3o, pp.501-523.
Coates, Austin. 1967. City of Broken Promises. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.
Conceição, Deolinda da. 1956. Cheong-sam – A Cabaia. Lisboa, Livraria Francisco Franco.
Fernandes, Henrique de Senna. 1978. Nam-Van (Contos de Macau). Macau, Ed. do Autor.
Fernandes, Henrique de Senna. 1986. Amor e Dedinhos-de-Pé (Romance de Macau). Macau, Instituto Cultural de Macau.
Fernandes, Henrique de Senna. 1992. A Trança Feiticeira. Macau, Instituto Português do Oriente.
Inso, Jaime do. 1932. O Caminho do Oriente. Lisboa, Tipografia Élite.
Laborinho, Ana Paula. 1999. Por uma literatura de Macau. Antologia de Poetas de Macau. Macau: Instituto Camões/Instituto Cultural de Macau/Instituto Português do Oriente, pp.17-21.
Liao Zixin. 2003. Les hallucinations d’Ao Ge (trad. Françoise Naour). Paris: Bleu de Chine.
Lou Mau. 2000. Olhando as Colinas (trad. António Lei). Macau: Instituto Cultural.
Martini, Edith Jorge de. 1993. The Wing among the Ruins: A Childhood in Macao. New York: Vantage Press.
Nery, Felipe B. 1988. Filho de Macau (A Son of Macao): An Autobiography. New York: Vantage Press.
Pittis, D. & Henders, S.J (eds). 1997. Macao: Mysterious Decay and Romance. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.
Trigoso, Maria José (org.). 1998. Sete Estrelas (Antologia de Prosa Feminina). Macau: Instituto Cultural de Macau.

Sunday 17 January 2010

Mia Couto - WALTIC congress address, Stockholm, July 2008.

Languages we don’t know we know
MIA COUTO

In an as yet unpublished short story of mine, the action is as follows: a terminally ill woman asks her husband to tell her a story so as to alleviate her unbearable pains. No sooner does he begin his tale than she stops him:

No, not like that. I want you to speak to me in an unknown language.
Unknown? He asks.
A language that doesn’t exist. For I have such a need not to understand anything at all.

The husband asks himself: how can you speak a language that doesn’t exist? He starts off by mumbling some strange words and feels like a fool, as if he were establishing his inability to be human. But gradually, he begins to feel more at ease with this language that is devoid of rules. And he no longer knows whether he’s speaking, singing, or praying. When he pauses, he notices his wife has fallen asleep, with the most peaceful smile on her face. Later, she confesses to him: those sounds had brought back memories of a time before she even had a memory! And they had given her the solace of that same sleep which provides the link between us and what was here before we were alive.

When we were children, all of us experienced that first language, the language of chaos, all of us enjoyed that divine moment when our life was capable of being all lives, and the world still awaited a destiny. James Joyce called this relationship with an unformed, chaotic world ‘chaosmology’. This relationship, my friends, is what breathes life into writing, whatever the continent, whatever the nation, whatever the language or the literary genre.

I believe that all of us, whether poets or fiction writers, never stop seeking this seminal chaos. All of us aspire to return to that state in which we were so removed from a particular language that all languages were ours. To put it another way, we are all the impossible translators of dreams. In truth, dreams speak within us what no word is capable of saying.

Our purpose, as producers of dreams, is to gain access to that other language no one can speak, that hidden language in which all things can have all names. What the sick woman was asking was what we all wish for: to annul time and send death to sleep.

Maybe you expected me, coming as I do from Africa, to use this platform to lament, to accuse others, while absolving my immediate fellows from guilt. But I prefer to talk about something of which we are all victims and guilty at the same time, about how the process that has impoverished my continent is in fact devitalizing our common, universal position as creators of stories.

In a congress that celebrates the value of words, the theme of my intervention is the way dominant criteria are devaluing good literature in the name of easy and immediate profitability. I am talking about a commercial rationale that is closed to other cultures, other languages, other ways of thinking. The words of today are increasingly those that are shorn of any poetic dimension, that do not convey to us any utopian vision of a different world.

What has ensured human survival is not just our intelligence but our capacity to produce diversity. This diversity is nowadays being denied us by a system that makes its choice solely on the grounds of profit and easy success. Africans have become the ‘others’ once again, those who have little to sell, and who can buy even less. African authors (and especially those who write in Portuguese) live on the periphery of the periphery, there where words have to struggle in order not to be silence.

My dear friends

Languages serve to communicate. But they don’t just ‘serve’. They transcend that practical dimension. Languages cause us to be. And sometimes, just as in the story I mentioned, they cause us to stop being. We are born and we die inside speech, we are beholden to language even after we lose our body. Even those who were never born, even they exist within us as the desire for a word and as a yearning for a silence.

Our lives are dominated by a reductive and utilitarian perception that converts languages into the business of linguists and their technical skills. Yet the languages we know – and even those we are not aware that we knew – are multiple and not always possible to grasp by the rationalist logic that governs our conscious mind. Something exists that escapes norms and codes. This elusive dimension is what fascinates me as a writer. What motivates me is the divine vocation of the word, which not only names but also invents and produces enchantment.

We are all bound by the collective codes with which we communicate in our everyday lives. But the writer seeks to convey things that are beyond everyday life. Never before has our world had at its disposal so many means of communication. Yet our solitude has never been so extreme. Never before have we had so many highways. And yet never before have we visited each other so little.

I am a biologist and I travel a lot through my country’s savanna. In these regions, I meet people who don’t know how to read books. But they know how to read their world. In such a universe where other wisdoms prevail, I am the one who is illiterate. I don’t know how to read the signs in the soil, the trees, the animals. I can’t read clouds and the likelihood of rain. I don’t know how to talk to the dead, I’ve lost all contact with ancestors who give us our sense of the eternal. In these visits to the savanna, I learn sensitivities that help me to come out of myself and remove me from my certainties. In this type of territory, I don’t just have dreams. I am dreamable.

Mozambique is a huge country, as huge as it is new. More than 25 languages are spoken within it. Ever since independence, which was achieved in 1975, Portuguese has been the official language. Thirty years ago, only a tiny minority spoke this language, ironically borrowed from the colonizer in order to disaffirm the country’s colonial past. Thirty years ago, almost no Mozambicans had Portuguese as their mother tongue. Now, more than 12 percent of Mozambicans have Portuguese as their first language. And the great majority understands and speaks Portuguese, stamping standard Portuguese with the imprimatur of African cultures.

This tendency towards change places worlds that are not only distinguished by language, in confrontation with each other. Languages exist as part of culturally much vaster universes. There are those who fight to keep alive languages that are at risk of extinction. Such a fight is an utterly worthy one and recalls our own struggle as biologists to save animals and plants from disappearance. But languages can only be saved if the culture that harbours them can remain dynamic. In the same way, biological species can only be saved if their habitats and natural life patterns can be preserved.

Cultures survive for as long as they remain productive, as long as they are subject to change and can dialogue and mingle with other cultures. Languages and cultures do what living organisms do: they exchange genes and invent symbioses in response to the challenges of time and environment.

In Mozambique, we are living in an age when encounters and disencounters are occurring within a melting-pot full of exuberance and paradox. Words do not always serve as a bridge between these diverse worlds. For example, concepts that seem to us to be universal, such as Nature, Culture, and Society, are sometimes difficult to reconcile. There are often no words in local languages to express these ideas. Sometimes, the opposite is true: European languages do not possess expressions that may translate the values and concepts contained in Mozambican cultures.

I remember something that really happened to me. In 1989, I was doing research on the island of Inhaca when a team of United Nations technicians arrived there. They had come to carry out what is generally known as ‘environmental education’. I don’t want to comment here on how this concept of environmental education often conceals a type of messianic arrogance. The truth of the matter is that these scientists, brimming with good faith, had brought with them cases containing slide projectors and films. In a word, they had brought with them educational kits, in the naïve expectation that technology would prove the solution to problems of understanding and communication.

During the first meeting with the local population, some curious misunderstandings emerged that illustrate the difficulty of translating not so much words but thoughts. On the podium were the scientists who spoke in English, myself, who translated this into Portuguese, and a fisherman who translated the Portuguese into Chidindinhe, the local language. It all began when the visitors introduced themselves (I should mention here that most of them happened to be Swedish). We are ‘scientists’, they said. But the word ‘scientist’ doesn’t exist in the local language. The term chosen by the translator was ‘inguetlha’, which means ‘witchdoctor’. In those folks’ eyes therefore, the visitors were white witchdoctors. The Swedish leader of the delegation (unaware of the status conferred upon him) then announced: ‘we have come here to work on the environment’. Now, in that culture, the idea of the environment has no autonomous meaning and there is no word that exactly describes such a concept. The translator hesitated and eventually chose the word ‘ntumbuluku’, which has various meanings, but refers above all to a sort of Big Bang, the moment when humanity was created. As you can imagine, these island folk were fascinated: their little island had been chosen to study a matter of the highest, most noble metaphysical importance.

During the course of the dialogue, the same Swedish member of the delegation asked his audience to identify the environmental problems that were of greatest concern to the islanders. The crowd looked at each other, perplexed: ‘environmental problems?’ After consulting among themselves, the people chose their greatest problem: the invasion of their plantations by the ‘tinguluve’, or bush pigs. Interestingly, the term ‘tinguluve’ also describes the spirits of the dead who fell ill after they had stopped living. Whether they were spirits or pigs, the foreign expert didn’t understand very well what these ‘tinguluve’ were. He had never seen such an animal. His audience explained: the pigs had appeared mysteriously on the island and had begun to multiply in the forest. Now, they were destroying the plantations.

They’re destroying the plantations? Well, that’s easy: we can shoot them!

The crowd’s reaction was one of fearful silence. Shoot spirits? No one wanted to talk or listen anymore, no matter what the subject. And the meeting came to an abrupt end, damaged by a tacit loss of trust.

That night, a group of elders knocked on my door. They asked me to summon the foreigners so that they could better explain the problem of the pigs. The experts appeared, astonished by this interruption to their sleep.

It’s because of the wild pigs.

What about the pigs?

It’s because they’re not quite pigs…

So what are they, then? They asked, certain that a creature couldn’t exist and at the same time not exist.

They are almost pigs. But they’re not complete pigs.

Their explanation was going from bad to worse. The pigs were defined in ever more vague terms: ‘convertible creatures’, ‘temporary animals’ or ‘visitors who had been sent by someone’. Eventually, the zoologist, who was by now getting tired, took out his manual and showed them the photograph of a wild pig. The locals looked and exclaimed: ‘Yes, that’s the one’. The scientists smiled, satisfied, but their victory was short lived, for one of the elders added: Yes, this is the animal, but only at night time. I have few doubts that by this time, the experts doubted my ability as a translator. In this way, they didn’t need to question what they were saying or query how they had arrived in an unknown locality.

Whatever the correct translation might be, the truth is that the relationship between the experts and the local community was never good and no manner of modern power point presentation could make up for the initial misunderstanding.

On another occasion, I was accompanying a presidential delegation on a visit to a province in the North of Mozambique. The President of the Republic was introducing his ministers. When it came to the Minister of Culture, the translator, after a brief pause, then announced: ‘This is the Minister of Tomfoolery’.

In some languages in Mozambique, there isn’t a word for ‘poor’. A poor person is designated by the term ‘chisiwana’, which means ‘orphan’. In these cultures, a poor person isn’t just someone who doesn’t possess assets, but above all it is someone who has lost the network of family relationships, which, in rural society, are a support mechanism for survival. The individual is considered poor when he or she doesn’t have relatives. Poverty is loneliness, family rupture. It is possible that international experts, specialists in writing reports on destitution, don’t take sufficient account of the dramatic impact of destroyed family links and social mutual help networks. Whole nations are becoming ‘orphans’ and begging seems to be the only route to torturous survival.

By recounting these episodes, I wish to reinforce what we already know: the systems of thought in rural Africa are not easily reduceable to European processes of logic. Some who seek to understand Africa plunge into analyses of political, social and cultural phenomena. To understand the diversity of Africa, however, we need to get to know systems of thought and religious universes that often don’t even have a name. Such systems are curious because they are often rooted in actually negating the gods they invoke. For most of the peasantry in my country, the issues surrounding the origin of the world just don’t exist: the universe quite simply has always existed. What is the role of God in a world that never had a beginning? This is why, in some religions in Mozambique, the gods are always referred to in the plural, and have the same names as living people. The problem with God, according to a Makwa proverb, is the same as the one with the egg: if we don’t hold it properly we drop it; if we hold it too hard, we break it.

In the same way, the idea of the ‘environment’ presupposes that we humans are at the centre and things dwell in orbit to us. In reality, things don’t revolve around us, but along with them we form one same world, people and things dwell within one indivisible body. This diversity of thought suggests that it may be necessary to storm one last bastion of racism, which is the arrogance of assuming that there is only one system of knowledge, and of being unable to accept philosophies originating in impoverished nations.

I have been talking about the various cosmovisions found in rural areas of Mozambique. But I wouldn’t want you to look at them as if they were essentialities, resistant to time and the dynamics of exchange. Today, when I revisit the island of Inhaca, I see that campaigns have been mounted to kill the wild pigs that invade plantations. And local chiefs prepare for the visits of foreign scientists, using their mobile phones. Throughout the country, millions of Mozambicans have appropriated the words ‘culture’ and ‘nature’ and have absorbed them into their cultural universes. These new words are working on top of the original cultures, in the same way that certain trees invent the ground out of which they appear to be growing.

In short, cultural phenomena aren’t stopped in time, waiting for an anthropologist to turn up and record them as some proof of an exotic world, outside modernity. Africa has been subject to successive processes of essentialization and folklorization, and much of what is proclaimed as being authentically African is the result of inventions made outside the continent. For decades, African writers had to undergo the so-called test of authenticity: their texts were required to translate that which was understood to be their true ethnicity. Nowadays, young African writers are freeing themselves from ‘Africanness’. They are what they are without any need for proclamation. African writers seek to be as universal as any other writer in the world.

It is true that many writers in Africa face specific problems, but I prefer not to subscribe to the idea that Africa is a unique, singular and homogeneous place. There are as many Africas as there are writers and all of them are reinventing continents that lie inside their very selves. It is true that a high proportion of African writers face challenges in order to adjust their work to different languages and cultures. But this is not a problem that is exclusively ours, those of us who are African. There isn’t a writer in the world who doesn’t have to seek out his or her own identity among multiple and elusive identities. In every continent, each person is a nation made up of different nations. One of these nations lives submerged and made secondary by the universe of writing. This hidden nation is called orality. Then again, orality is not a typically African phenomenon, nor is it a characteristic that is exclusive to those who are erroneously called ‘native peoples’. Orality is a universal territory, a treasure rich in thoughts and sensibilities that are reclaimed by poetry.

The idea persists that only African writers suffer what is called the drama of language. It is true that colonization induced traumas over identity and alienation. But the truth, my friends, is that no writer has at his disposal a language with its norms all tidy. We all have to find our own language in order to demonstrate our uniqueness and unrepeatability.

The Indian sociologist, André Breteille, wrote: ‘Knowing a language makes us human; fluency in more than one language makes us civilized’. If this is true, Africans – assumed down the ages to be uncivilized – may be better suited to modernity than even they themselves think. A high proportion of Africans know more than one African language and, apart from these, speak a European language. That which is generally seen as problematic may after all represent considerable potential for the future. For this ability to be polyglot may provide us Africans with a passport to something that has become perilously rare nowadays: the ability to travel between different identities and to visit the intimacy of others.

Whatever the case, a civilized future implies sweeping and radical changes in this world that could be ever more our world. It implies the eradication of hunger, war and poverty. But it also implies a predisposition to deal with the material of dreams. And this has everything to do with the language that lulled the sick woman to sleep at the beginning of my talk. The man of the future should surely be a type of bilingual nation. Speaking a language with an organised set of norms, capable of dealing with visible, everyday matters. But fluent too in another language to express that which belongs to the invisible, dreamlike order of existence.

What I am advocating is a plural man, equipped with a plural language. Alongside a language that makes us part of the world, there should be another that makes us leave it. On the one hand, a language that creates roots and a sense of place. On the other, a language that is a wing upon which to travel.

Alongside a language that gives us our sense of humanity, there should be another that can elevate us to the divine.


Thank you very much.

(Translated by David Brookshaw)